Figures of Chinese and Japanese history

Emperors, generals and samurai from the Three Kingdoms to the Meiji Restoration.

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• How Did a Peasant's Son Rule Japan? The Rise and Overreach of Toyotomi Hideyoshi

  Toyotomi Hideyoshi, born to a foot soldier's family, completed Japan's unification in 1590, then launched disastrous invasions of Korea. His rise and fall.

• How Did Genghis Khan Build the Mongol Empire? From Outcast Boy to Universal Ruler

  An abandoned boy named Temüjin united the steppe tribes and became Genghis Khan in 1206. How he did it, what it cost, and why Mongolia still honours him.

• How Did Liu Bei Go From Selling Sandals to Emperor of Shu Han?

  Liu Bei (161–223) rose from selling shoes and mats to found Shu Han in 221. The Peach Garden Oath is fiction; his loyal followers were real.

• How Did Tokugawa Ieyasu Win Japan? The Patient Hostage Who Founded a 250-Year Shogunate

  Tokugawa Ieyasu spent his childhood as a hostage, waited out two more powerful rivals, won at Sekigahara in 1600 and founded a shogunate that lasted until 1868.

• How Did Wu Zetian Become China's Only Female Emperor?

  Wu Zetian rose from a minor palace concubine to empress, regent and finally emperor of her own Zhou dynasty in 690. Here is how she did it.

• Minamoto no Yoshitsune, the Samurai Who Won the Genpei War and Lost His Brother

  Minamoto no Yoshitsune (c.1159–1189) crushed the Taira at Dan-no-ura, then was hunted down by his brother Yoritomo. His battles, fall and legends.

• Sakamoto Ryōma and the End of the Samurai Age: The Runaway Swordsman Behind the Satchō Alliance

  Sakamoto Ryōma (1836–1867) was a low-ranking Tosa samurai who helped unite Satsuma and Chōshū against the shogunate and was murdered in Kyoto at 31.

• Was Cao Cao Really a Villain? The Warlord Behind the Three Kingdoms Myth

  Cao Cao (c. 155–220) unified northern China, wrote famous poetry and laid the foundations of the Wei state. His villain image owes much to a later novel.

• Was Zhuge Liang Really That Brilliant? History vs. the Romance of the Three Kingdoms

  Zhuge Liang (181–234) was a real chancellor of Shu Han. The borrowed arrows, the east wind and the seven captures of Meng Huo come largely from a novel.

• Who Was Honinbo Shusaku? The 'Invincible' Go Player Behind the Ear-Reddening Move

  Hon'inbo Shusaku won all 19 of his castle games, played the famous ear-reddening game at 17 and died of cholera at 33 caring for the sick. Go's legendary sage.

• Who Was Miyamoto Musashi? Japan's Undefeated Swordsman and The Book of Five Rings

  Miyamoto Musashi fought dozens of duels without losing, founded a two-sword style and wrote The Book of Five Rings. Separating the man from the legend.

• Who Was Oda Nobunaga? The 'Fool of Owari' Who Began Japan's Unification

  Oda Nobunaga rose from a mocked young lord to the most powerful man in Japan, using guns, free markets and ruthless war, until a retainer betrayed him in 1582.

• Why Did Qin Shi Huang Build the Terracotta Army? China's First Emperor and His Quest to Live Forever

  Qin Shi Huang unified China in 221 BC, standardised its writing and money, and was buried with an army of clay soldiers. Who he was and why he wanted them.

• Why Is Guan Yu Worshipped as a God? From Three Kingdoms General to Guan Gong

  Guan Yu was a real general under Liu Bei who died in 220. Centuries of legend and imperial honours turned him into Guan Gong, a god of loyalty and war.

• Xiang Yu vs Liu Bang: How a Peasant Beat China's Mightiest Warrior and Founded the Han Dynasty

  Xiang Yu was China's greatest warrior; Liu Bang was a former village official. How the Chu–Han war ended with Liu Bang founding the Han dynasty in 202 BC.

• Zheng He's Treasure Fleet: How a Captured Boy From Yunnan Became Ming China's Admiral of Seven Voyages

  Zheng He (1371–1433/35) led seven Ming treasure voyages from 1405 to 1433, reaching India, Arabia and East Africa. His rise, his fleet and his legacy.