How Did Wu Zetian Become China's Only Female Emperor?

Wu Zetian became emperor in stages over about fifty years. She entered the palace as a low-ranking consort of Emperor Taizong, returned after his death as a favourite of his son Gaozong, became empress in 655, ran the government in practice while Gaozong was ill, ruled through her own sons after he died, and finally, in 690, proclaimed a new dynasty called Zhou with herself as emperor. She is the only woman in Chinese history to rule as an undisputed sovereign. Her path combined political talent, ruthless removal of rivals and a clever use of religion, and historians still argue over how much of her dark reputation is deserved.

A well-educated girl from the Wu family

Wu was born in 624 into the Wu family; her exact birthplace is disputed. Her father, Wu Shihuo, was a Tang official who encouraged her to read and write and to develop skills usually reserved for boys, and she also studied music, poetry and public speaking. That education would matter. Later in life she would argue history and policy with emperors and ministers on equal terms.

Step one: a minor consort of Emperor Taizong

At about fourteen she entered the court of Emperor Taizong as a lesser consort. Taizong gave her the name Mei-niang, which is often mistakenly treated as her birth name; her personal name was Wu Zhao. According to the World History Encyclopedia, she began with menial duties and won Taizong's attention through her conversation about history, after which she was given secretarial work.

When Taizong died in 649, she was sent to Ganye Temple, where custom expected the late emperor's consorts to stay as nuns for the rest of their lives. For almost anyone else, that would have been the end of the story.

Step two: back to the palace under Gaozong

Instead, Taizong's son and successor, Emperor Gaozong, reconnected with her and brought her back to the palace. This was scandalous by Confucian standards, since she had belonged to his father's household. The palace she returned to was divided by a rivalry between Gaozong's wife, Empress Wang, and his favourite, Consort Xiao.

Wu bore Gaozong sons, which strengthened her position. In 654 her infant daughter died, and Empress Wang was accused of causing the death. Wang was deposed, and in 655 Wu became empress; Wang and Consort Xiao were later killed. Later historians told the story that Wu killed her own daughter to frame the empress. Both of our sources stress that this is an accusation, not an established fact: the details are unverifiable, and the accounts come from writers hostile to her.

Step three: the "Two Saints" behind the throne

From around 660 Gaozong suffered a debilitating illness, and Wu increasingly handled state affairs. Court observers spoke of the pair as the "Two Saints". She did not hide her role. In 666 she led women in rituals at Mount Tai, ceremonies traditionally performed by men, and in 674 the couple took the exalted titles Heavenly Emperor and Heavenly Empress.

She also removed powerful opponents, including the senior chancellor Zhangsun Wuji. Her own sons were not safe. Crown Prince Li Hong died in 675, traditionally said to have been poisoned, and she deposed another son, Li Xian, in 680.

Step four: ruling through her sons

Gaozong died in 683. Her son Li Zhe became Emperor Zhongzong but was deposed within weeks; her youngest son, Li Dan, was then installed as Emperor Ruizong, while Wu held the real power as empress dowager. By now the only thing missing was the title itself.

Step five: the Zhou dynasty and a Buddhist mandate

In 690 she proclaimed the Zhou dynasty and took the throne as emperor. Confucian tradition offered little support for a female ruler, so she turned to Buddhism. She sponsored temples and Maitreya imagery, and presented herself as an incarnation of the future Buddha Maitreya, backed by texts that supported her claim. The great Buddhist sculptures at Longmen also benefited from her patronage.

How she governed: informants and examinations

Her reign had two faces. On one side was fear. She used informants, including copper boxes into which people could drop anonymous reports, and secret police who carried out purges; the worst of the violence eased after about 692.

On the other side was a real shake-up of who got to govern. She expanded the civil service examinations and promoted talented men from less privileged backgrounds, weakening the grip of old aristocratic families. The World History Encyclopedia also credits her with agricultural manuals, irrigation, military examinations for commanders and new written characters, and notes that she reopened Silk Road trade. Even the eleventh-century historian Sima Guang, no friend of female rule, acknowledged her skill at judging officials.

Her wars were more mixed. She fought Tibetan, Khitan and Turkic forces with varying results.

The fall: the Zhang brothers and the Shenlong Coup

In her last years she relied heavily on two much younger favourites, the Zhang brothers, and accusations of corruption against them grew. Officials struck in the Shenlong Coup of 705, killing the Zhang brothers, abolishing the Zhou dynasty and restoring the Tang with Zhongzong back on the throne. She died a few months later, on 16 December 705, in Luoyang, aged about 81.

The blank stone

Wu was buried beside Gaozong in the Qianling Mausoleum near Chang'an. In front of the tomb stands the famous Wordless Stele, a monument with no inscription. Its meaning is debated; one reading is that it reflects disapproval of a woman who had ruled as emperor. Another, more romantic, is that she let posterity judge her. Either way, the blank stone is a fitting symbol of a ruler whose story was written mostly by her critics.

Monster or modernizer?

For centuries, Confucian historians portrayed her as a usurper and a murderer. Modern historians have revised that image, pointing to the stability and prosperity of much of her reign and to the fact that her successor Xuanzong kept many of her policies, though he barred her relatives from office. The fairest answer is probably both: she was ruthless in a ruthless court, and she was also one of the most capable rulers China ever had.

Learn with Wu Zetian: English phrases about ambition

Phrase	Meaning	Example
to climb the ladder	to rise step by step	She climbed the ladder from consort to emperor.
the power behind the throne	the person really in control	For years she was the power behind the throne.
to pull the strings	to control events secretly	She pulled the strings while her sons reigned.
to fall from grace	to lose a high position	Empress Wang fell from grace in 655.
to leave a mixed legacy	to be remembered for good and bad	Wu left a mixed legacy.

Try this: Write three sentences about a famous leader, using "climb the ladder", "pull the strings" and "leave a mixed legacy".